How do I Write Claims & Counterclaims in ToK Essay?
There is no explicit requirement in the marking criteria for the ToK Essay to structure it using claims and counterclaims. The only instruction is that you use "arguments". There is no clear definition of what is meant by an "argument", however I have found over many years that using a claim-counterclaim structure is a successful way for students to fulfil the requirement for 'arguments'.
The Sports Metaphor of the ToK Essay
Sports metaphor for the essay.
At the outset the ToK Essay can be thought of like any competitive sport (eg Tennis, Basketball, Football etc), there are two sides competing for a single aim, deploying various tactics & strategies to achieve that aim.
In terms of the ToK Essay the two sides are the sides of the debate arising from the Prescribed Title (perspectives or "Claim" and "Counterclaim"), these two perspectives are competing to 'prove' or confirm the answer to the Prescribed Title. The tactics and strategies of sports teams are like the sub-arguments in the ToK Essay.
OK, enough of the sports metaphor - I hope you get the idea that the essay is a competition of ideas. The implication of this is that your essay can't be descriptive, it must be analytical and evaluative.
Claims & Counterclaims.
The Claim-Counterclaim structure has been used by many students over the years to introduce an argument structure into the essay. This structure allows you to focus on the knowledge issues arising from the PT, and to easily meet the requirement to introduce evidence supporting the arguments (claims & counterclaims). Before I go further into this debate let me highlight a few riders:
There is no prescription for the perfect number of claims / counterclaims to be included in the Essay - you will just have to choose the appropriate number for the essay that you are writing.
There are other ways to build arguments into your essay eg Hypothesis-Antithesis, Single strand development etc. I use claim-counterclaim as I find it the most accessible for students, and it has proven to be successful.
What is a claim ?
A claim is a position developed from the Prescribed Title. It could be the PT itself, or it could be a knowledge issue arising from the PT. Generally, a claim argues in the same direction of the PT. The claim allows you to start to unpack one (or more) of the strands of the arguments underlying the PT.
Let's look at some examples taken from (slightly altered*) PTs of recent years:
*these are slightly altered because IB retains the copyright of the PTs.
1. The Claim is the PT itself.
PT: Observation is the most effective form of knowledge production.
Discuss this approach with reference to two Areas of Knowledge.
Claim:Observation is the most effective form of knowledge production in AoK History.
This PT is very straightforward, the PT is in itself a single clear knowledge claim. As such it doesn't require unpacking any further to form a claim. There are a number of assumptions underlying the PT, and implicit claims that could be developed from the PT. However, I think that (for most students) to further develop the claim would run the risk of altering the PT itself (see 3 Easy Wins on the ToK Essay). In this case using the unaltered PT as the opening Claim would best give you the opportunity to write a very high scoring essay.
2. The Claim is a strand developed from the PT.
PT: If each Knower creates a unique and individual interpretation of knowledge it is impossible to create universal standardised meanings.
Discuss the challenges this presents in two Areas of Knowledge.
Claim: Individual interpretation of knowledge does not prevent standardised meaning in AoK Natural Sciences.
This PT starts with a proposition ("If....,"), and therefore invites the student to engage with that proposal. In order to engage with it you will need to find a starting point for your exploration, that starting point is the claim (obviously you don't need to agree with the either the claim nor the counterclaim, they are merely tools for exploration).
In this example you have to extract the starting point (claim) from the proposal (in the PT), the claim is a strand developed from the wider PT. There are many other claims which could have been developed from this PT. The claim that the student chooses will depend upon the AoKs chosen to consider, and the arguments the student wishes to put forward. The success of the essay will depend far more on the exploration of the claim rather than the claim itself.
In this example my argument would be that language determines interpretation (yes, I do like Wittgenstein), and therefore if a universal language is used (as it is in the methodologies of AoK Nat Sci and AoK Hum Sci) then universal meanings are created regardless of the interpretation and application of that meaning. I would be careful to define meaning as externally derived knowledge and interpretation as internally derived knowledge.
3. The Claim is a possible implicit argument underpinning the PT.
PT: Is there a trade-off between disbelief and the successful production of knowledge?
Discuss with reference to two Areas of Knowledge.
Claim: Disbelief is an essential component of the successful production of knowledge in AoK The Human Sciences.
This PT is a straight up binary question, it could be taken as a closed ended question but if you responded to it with a simple yes/no answer you wouldn't get many (if any) marks. The PT requires that the student identify at least two arguments that could underpin this question, and set these up as the claim-counterclaim. There are many possible arguments underpinning this question which could well serve as the claim-counterclaim.
This type of claim is not very different to #2, the main difference being that in #2 the claim is likely to be more evident in the PT, whilst in #3 the claim is implicit (not stated) in the PT. I include it here to show students that the claim (& counterclaim) may very well have to be a less obvious sub-strand of the PT, obviously depending on the PT itself.
What is a Counterclaim ?
The Counterclaim is generally the rebuttal of the claim, ie arguing the opposing point of view from the claim. However, the counterclaim can sometimes be a variation of the claim, depending on how you have structured your essay. Further, the counterclaim needs to make sense in terms of your overall essay argument. I will take the (somewhat altered*) PT's from above, and develop possible counterclaims to the claims already stated.
* The PT's are somewhat altered because IB retain the copyright to PTs used in exam sessions.
1. The Straightforward Counterclaim.
PT: Observation is the most effective form of knowledge production.
Discuss this approach with reference to two Areas of Knowledge.
Claim: Observation is the most effective form of knowledge production in AoK History
Counterclaim: Other forms of knowledge production are the most effective forms of knowledge production in AoK Mathematics.
In this case the Counterclaim is made in the second Area of Knowledge under consideration (AoK Maths). The direct rebuttal of the claim would simply be "Observation is not the most effective form of knowledge production in AoK Mathematics", this would be a perfectly reasonable counterclaim that a student could develop a good answer from. However, I chose a slight variation on the claim in order to not neglect the effectiveness of observation as a means for producing knowledge. Further, the counterclaim chosen allows me to open the discussion up to other forms of knowledge construction.
2. Counterclaim as a development of the Claim.
PT: If each Knower creates a unique and individual interpretation of knowledge it is impossible to create universal standardised meanings.
Discuss the challenges this presents in two Areas of Knowledge.
Claim: Individual interpretation of knowledge does not prevent standardised meaning in AoK Natural Sciences and AoK Human Sciences.
Counterclaim: The methodology of knowledge production has little influence over meaning and interpretation in AoK Natural Sciences and AoK Human Sciences.
In this instance the counterclaim is a development from the claim rather than a direct rebuttal of the claim. This is easier done because I have made the claim in both of the AoKs under consideration. The counterclaim follows on from the argument developed in the claim (about the scientific methodology used in Nat Sci & Hum Sci, and the difference between interpretation and meaning).
In many instances this development of the claim into a counterclaim can allow for a more nuanced essay response, however it is important to ensure that the arguments presented in the claim are evaluated in the counterclaim.
3. Counterclaim as a variation of the Claim.
PT: Is there a trade-off between disbelief and the successful production of knowledge?
Discuss with reference to two Areas of Knowledge.
Claim: Disbelief is an essential component of the successful production of knowledge in AoK The Human Sciences.
Counterclaim: Disbelief can both promote and hinder the successful production of knowledge in AoK The Arts
In this example the Counterclaim is neither a direct rebuttal, nor a development from the claim. Here the counterclaim is a variation of the claim. I am able to do this as my overall argument on the PT is "it depends on which AoK we're looking at", and as such I am able to present slightly different arguments for each of the AoKs under consideration. As long as I fulfil the overriding requirement of the ToK Essay Assessment rubric (to provide a full and critical exploration of the PT), I should still be able to attain a high score on this essay.
Of course I could have chosen a counterclaim which is a direct rebuttal of the claim (eg Counterclaim: Disbelief is an obstacle to the successful production of knowledge in AoK The Arts). This would be equally valid, and if well written could also attain a high score. However, I chose this variation solely to show you the different types of counterclaim that could be developed.
There are more good tips on how to improve your ToK Essay on IB Mastery (linked)
If you want further help on planning, structuring or writing the ToK Essay then consider buying the Ebook How to write your ToK Essay in 6 Easy Steps. If you would prefer personal help please feel free to contact me (Daniel@ToKToday.com), or check the Student Support Pages to see how to make an appointment.
Daniel,
Lisbon, Portugal.
September 2022